14. ALEXANDER
3 moder, mother.
5 slee, slay; here, her; th'entente, the intent.
6 dede, dead; reame, realm.
8 fadir, father.
10 tother, other.
13 discomfited, defeated.
14 meoved, moved.
15 viage, voyage.
17 stered, agitated; wrothe, angry.
18 ware, aware; swerde, sword.
19 smeten, struck.
20 doute, fear.
21 leve, leave off.
24 wole, wish.
27 or, ere.
29 nygh, near.
32 here, their.
33 teche, teach.
36 oon, one.
39 dedis, deeds.
41 chesith, choose.
46 wele, weal (wealth).
54 wole, want.
56 chase, chose; here, their.
59 beseche, beseech.
67 sterres, stars; see, sea.
68 verey knowelech, true knowledge; stablisshed, established.
71 of, for.
73 ydoles, idols; nouther noye ne helpe, neither harm nor help.
76 hens, hence; verrey beleeve, true belief.
81 wele garnysshed, well equipped.
83 curteys, courteous.
84 rightwos, righteous.
87 here hertis, their hearts.
88 trewage, tribute.
89 peas, peace.
91-92 the henne that gave thes eggis was dede, the hen that laid these eggs was dead.
92 her, their.
94 devysioun, division.
95 scomfyted, defeated.
99 Occidente, the East.
101 Alysaundre, Alexandria.
103 Armenye, Armenia.
112 armures, armors.
113 her, their.
116 valure, valor.
117 excusacioun, reason for excuse.
119 logged, lodged.
121 passingely wrothe, surpassingly angry.
123 sonne, sun.
129 letest calle thiself kinge, allow yourself to be called king; croune, crown.
135 coffre, coffer (chest).
136 ure, here.
137 appyl, apple.
142 here, their.
143 of, off.
144 merveile, marvel.
149 and2, if.
155 bere, bear.
158 rygour, rigor.
159 hadde to here meete, taken to their food.
162 weneth, believes.
163 dradde and douted, dreaded and feared.
171 Creature, Creator.
175 wete, know.
177 trewage, tribute.
185 aferde, afraid; mencyon, mention; puyssaunces, powers.
189 here, their.
191 vicary, priest; discomfited, defeated.
195 brente, burned.
197 shette, shut; doute, fear.
198 ellis, otherwise.
199 agenst, for.
201 discomfyted, defeated.
203 hoost, host (army).
212 warde, custody.
214 revere, river; froren, frozen; yse, ice.
216 here, their.
218 bethoughte himself, thought to himself.
225 Ynde, India.
226 yghe, eye.
230 wote, know; cunne, give.
232 of2, off.
233 or, ere.
236 puyssaunce roial, royal power.
241 discomforte, dismay.
244 to1, too.
246 what is falle of me, what has befallen me.
247 here, her.
250 aumbre, amber.
252 beere, bier.
256 entered, interred.
263 brenne, burn; payennes, pagans.
265 exampleres, exemplars.
266 here, their.
267 lete bylde, allowed to be built.
271 here, her.
273 to1 and2, too.
275 noyeth, annoys.
283 here, hear.
284 muste nedes passe, had to pass.
287 Creature, Creator; holpen, helped.
289 here, their.
294 wole, wish.
295 trewage, tribute.
296 be, by.
304 olyfauntes, elephants.
305 fyte, fight.
307 here, their.
310 yren, iron.
312 batailes, battle-lines.
314 here, their.
316 meyne, men.
321 lesyn, lessen.
329 here, their.
332 sethen, since.
333 wole, will.
334 of here harneys, off their armor.
336 seeced, ceased.
337 enteered, interred.
338 longed unto, was fitting for.
341 saleweden, saluted.
342 werre, war.
345 tarye, tarry.
346 her, their.
350 asshe, ask.
353 lefe, live.
354 othre, others.
356 levynge, living; Syn, Since.
359 leve, leave.
362 wawes of the see, waves of the sea.
364 leve, live.
367 kepe, maintain (govern).
374 sadellis, saddles.
375 harneys, armor.
376 alloes, the aloe tree; habregeons, suits of chainmail.
378 leve, leave.
380 bylded, built.
383 on lasse, unless.
384 vesyte, visit.
387 toon, one.
389 sethen, since.
392 wote, know.
393 tothir, other.
397 Sythen, Since.
405 here lyfelode, their livelihood.
407 wende, thought.
411 reyned, rained; sonne schoone, sun shone.
417 dyche, ditch.
418 cetezeyns, citizens.
427 pamente, surface.
429 noose felle on bledinge, nose began to bleed.
430 waxe passinge, became surpassingly.
431 of, off; coote of yron, coat of iron.
435 heere, hear.
441 ferre hens, far hence.
445 syn, since.
450 wote, know.
455 bethe, be.
458 weren bene deede, were are [now] dead.
459 ruyne, ruin.
460 sewed, pursued.
462 lenage, lineage.
464 herre, higher.
465 wexen, became.
467 Lybye, Libya.
468 Assye, Asia.
473 decessed, died.
474 Alysaundre, Alexandria.
481 recomforte, comfort; werne, were.
483 wonte, accustomed.
491 heere, hear; noone durste, no one dared.
493 petevous, piteous.
496 nygh, near; dyspreise, denounce.
497 Alysaundre, Alexandria.
499 here, her.
500 chaare, chair (bier).
503-04 heelde here peas, held her peace.
513 leete crye, let cry.
514 reherced, rehearsed.
515 here, their.
517 here meete, their food.
524 woldest, would; wrothe, angry.
529 emplyed, employed.
530 vesyted, visited.
533 drowgh, drew.
534 yemen, yeomen; werre, war.
537 vesage, visage.
540 meynee, company.
542 dreede, dread.
549 here, their.
559 seeche, seek; boones, bones.
560 dyssever, separate; mennys, men(s.
562 sewe, pursue.
570-71 custumably, customarily.
571 here, hear.
573 wolde, wished; cownted, counted.
574 feyghte, fight.
577 motouns, muttons; beestis, beasts; kechen, kitchen.
578 patryarkes, patriarchs.
580 lynage, lineage.
594 forthwithal, forthwith.
595 pecis, pieces.
596 valure, valor; somme, sum.
607 resceyvoure, receiver.
611 boonde, bound.
613 and, if.
620 passyngely, surpassingly; doute, fear.
626 herers, hearers.
629 here, their.
633 leesith, loses.
637 wenynge, believing.
638 soore, sorely.
639 Bethe, Be.
640 scole, school.
641 wore, were.
650 be, been.
651 empeche, impeach (accuse).
652 apayed, pleased with.
659 slouthe, sloth.
667 wexe, become.
676 here, their.
678 wyndes, winds.
679 wedyr, weather.
682 or, ere; lowable, praiseworthy.
684 heere, hear (listen to).
686 fawte, fault.
14. ALEXANDER: EXPLANATORY NOTES
ABBREVIATIONS: B = Dicts and Sayings of the Philosophers, ed. Bühler (1941); CA = Gower's Confessio Amantis; CT = Chaucer's Canterbury Tales; G = Pierpont Morgan Library MS G.66; MED = Middle English Dictionary; OED = Oxford English Dictionary; S = Scrope, Dicts and Sayings of the Philosophers, ed. Schofield (1936).
These explanatory notes cannot hope to provide a complete accounting for the source of every proverbial statement in Dicts and Sayings. That task would be a separate book in its own right. Instead, I have attempted to contextualize this rather heterogeneous body of lore by identifying the people and places named in the text, as well as noting points that may be of interest to students and general readers. Those interested in tracing the source of particular quotations should begin by consulting Whiting's Proverbs, Sentences, and Proverbial Phrases From English Writings Mainly Before 1500. Readers are also invited to consult the thorough notes to Knust's Bocados de Oro, the Spanish translation of the original Arabic ancestor of Dicts and Sayings.
1 Alysaundir. The son of Philip II of Macedonia, Alexander (356-323 BC) conquered a vast empire spanning from Greece to the western frontiers of India. As a young man he ruled much of central Asia, but his huge empire collapsed shortly after his death. Alexander had a rather ambivalent reputation in the Middle Ages, in that he was remembered as both a brilliant military leader and a brutal imperialist. The primary source for the life of Alexander in Dicts and Sayings is the Greek romance known as Pseudo-Callisthenes, so named because it was once attributed to the Greek historiographer who accompanied Alexander's expedition until the king turned against him and had him killed. The original Pseudo-Callisthenes was composed sometime after 200 BC (Cary, Medieval Alexander, p. 9). There are several redactions. The earliest (Alpha) was translated into Latin by Julius Valerius in the fourth century and entitled Res gestae Alexandri Macedonis; an abbreviated form, called the Julius Valerius Epitome (or the Zacher Epitome), was widely circulated and often appears in manuscripts with Epistola Alexandri Magni ad Aristotelem magistrum suum de situ et mirabilibus Indiae (The Letter of Alexander the Great to His Teacher Aristotle on the Geography and the Marvels of India). A later "Delta" recension does not survive in its original Greek but can be found in a Syriac translation and a tenth-century Latin translation by Leo, archbishop of Naples. Leo's version was revised in the eleventh century into the I1 version of the Historia de Preliis Alexandri Magni, which adds new material, such as Alexander's conversations with Dindimus (Bunt, Alexander the Great, pp. 6-7). The Historia de Preliis, existing in three redactions, provided the source material for many English Alexander romances; the I3 redaction, for instance, was the source for The Wars of Alexander (Bunt, pp. 27-29). As in many of the texts inspired by Pseudo-Callisthenes, the Wars presents, Bunt writes, "a heroic and philosophical Alexander, well aware that he is mortal, and that pride is a constant danger, but yet succumbing to the vice himself; in short, a hero who may be larger than life, but is still recognisably human" (p. 31). Dicts and Sayings contains some alterations to the basic story found in Pseudo-Callisthenes: most significantly, here the exiled Egyptian pharaoh Nectanebus - who is secretly Alexander's father in the original version is nowhere to be found, and Alexander is the son of Philip.
Kinge Phelip of Macedoyne. See the explanatory note for Aristotle, line 33.
2 Chaus. His name is Theosidos in Pseudo-Callisthenes. This is Pausanias, a nobleman and member of Philip's bodyguard, who had a long-standing grievance against the king.
7 Pilate. I have been unable to ascertain his identity.
11 Sarapye. The town is called Methone in Pseudo-Callisthenes.
65-77 Here Alexander instructs his people to stop worshiping idols and turn instead to the one true God. As Cary notes, "[t]he portrait of Alexander contained in [Dicts and Sayings] belongs to the Oriental tradition; he appears as a philosopher king, bent on the suppression of idolatry" (Medieval Alexander, p. 23). Indeed, in the Middle Ages the legendary Alexander often was co-opted into the mono-theistic fold. Bunt notes echoes of Vulgate Psalms 113:5 and 134:16 in this passage (Alexander the Great, p. 72).
88-89 King Dayre, whiche was kinge of Perce. This is the Persian king Darius III (r. 336-330 BC), who rose to power amidst a series of bloody coups. When the Macedonian army pushed into Persian territory, Darius seriously underestimated Alexander's determination and military strength. After a series of humiliating defeats, he was murdered by his own subordinates.
102 Desteme. In Scrope's translation of Dicts and Sayings, the town is called Estam. "In Arabic, this town is el-Farama, a city which lies to the east of Tinnis in Egypt" (S, p. 213n96).
106 Tyre. Established by the Phoenicians, this crucial port city in modern-day Lebanon was besieged and taken by Alexander in 332.
120 Usyoche. The Oxus River, today known as the Amu Darya.
194 Quylle. The town is called Abdera (located in Thrace) in Pseudo-Callisthenes.
216 ff. The extended narrative recounting the death of Darius is marked by several interesting elements. First, the two enemies reconcile, speaking well of one another after their long and bitter conflict. Alexander also shows great courtesy by promising to look after Darius' family. His magnanimity here is consistent with the typical portrait of Alexander in the Pseudo-Callisthenes tradition, in which the king is cast as a great hero and a man of virtue. In Dicts and Sayings, the author makes it clear that Alexander's victories over Darius and later the Indian king Porrus are a "result of his moral and philosophical superiority" (Bunt, Alexander the Great, p. 72). Even more interesting, perhaps, is Darius' dying speech: "O Alysaundre, loke thu be nat to proude, nor make nat thiself higher thanne longeth to thyne estate, and truste nat to moche on this world, and lete this be a suffysaunte myrroure unto the seenge what is falle of me" (lines 243-46). The moralizing tone in this passage is similar to what we find in the Historia de Preliis (particularly the I3 recension), where Darius' speech becomes a warning against pride (Bunt, p. 9).
301 Porrus, the Kinge of Ynde. In the Alexander tradition, Porus was a king in what is now India; he opposed Alexander, was defeated by him, and then entered into an alliance with him and thus was allowed to retain control of his territory.
340 Brachemos. These are the famous "naked philosophers" whom Alexander encounters in many of the medieval romances. As Bunt elaborates, "this episode resembles the story of Alexander's meeting with the Gymnosophists in the romances which derive from the Historia de Preliis, but gives more emphasis to Alexander's rejoinder to the question of the Brachemos why he exerts himself so much" to destroy everything and amass treasures (Alexander the Great, p. 72). Alexander replies that "he acts in obedience to God's command, who has sent him" to uphold God's law and punish unbelievers (pp. 72-73).
368 Swanne. I have been unable to identify this "land," but it is so named in The Prose Life of Alexander. There are several instances in Pseudo-Callisthenes, and in later Alexander tales, in which the inhabitants of a city or region surrender to Alexander without a fight.
379 estwarde into Turkye. Obviously the geography is off, but in the Middle Ages "Turkey" often referred more generally to the vast steppes of Central Asia.
427 by aunsuers of trees. Tree of the Sun and the Tree of the Moon, which speak to Alexander and prophesy his impending death. The earliest known reference to the trees can be found in the fourth-century Res gestae Alexandri Macedonis of Julius Valerius (ed. Rosellini, pp. 145-50), whose work is a Latin translation of the earliest (Alpha) recension of Pseudo-Callisthenes. See Cary, Medieval Alexander, p. 337n137, for a list of later medieval texts that cite this anecdote.
428-29 he toke a grete heete, wherupon his noose felle on bledinge. Here Dicts and Sayings departs from the standard account of Alexander's demise in Pseudo-Callisthenes, where the king is felled by poison.
476 ff. Here the great lords of Alexander's empire pay homage to the dead king at his funeral. The episode parallels a similar scene found in many versions of the Historia de Preliis, where philosophers gather at Alexander's grave; they each "pronounce an epigrammatic, if platitudinous, comment on the transience of human glory. The ultimate source of this scene is the Disciplina Clericalis of Petrus Alfonsi, a Spanish Jew who became a Christian and who travelled widely in Western Europe" (Bunt, Alexander the Great, p. 10).
538 And Alysaundre seide in his lyfe. While most of the preceding text was biographical in nature and drawn from Pseudo-Callisthenes, from this point the remainder of Alexander's section is devoted to his maxims. Though he was always regarded as more of a warrior than a philosopher, Alexander was often depicted as a learned wise man in medieval Islamic writings. See Southgate, "Portrait of Alexander in Persian Alexander-Romances." Southgate notes that "[i]n Persian romances Alexander is learned himself, and he surrounds himself with philosophers at his court and on his expeditions . . . The notion of Alexander as a philosopher-king originated in a didactic genre consisting of lives of philosophers followed by a collection of their wise sayings" (p. 282). Thus works like the original Arabic version of Dicts and Sayings influenced Muslim Alexander romances. In such texts Alexander is depicted as a great hero, sage, protector of man, and prophet, but also he is also human, and has human failings like avarice (Southgate, p. 284).
660 Nychomaque. Perhaps Nichomachus, the son of Aristotle (named after Aristotle's father).
676-77 Do wele to othir men yf thu wilt that thei wole do wele to thee. Another manifestation of the Golden Rule. See Whiting D274.
685-86 It was a gretter fawte to lacke discrecioun thanne to lacke ricchesse. This is an interesting final statement for Alexander to make. How, ultimately, are we to view Alexander's place in this work? He is the only speaker who was not a thinker by trade, yet he is the most prominent character of all: in addition to his own section - the longest of any - he recurs throughout the Diogenes and Aristotle sections. It is not a uniform characterization throughout. As Bunt notes,
[t]he picture of Alexander presented in The Dicts and Sayings of the Philosophers is . . . not entirely consistent. Whereas the sections dealing with his own life portray Alexander as a wise and devout ruler, other episodes make him simply the recipient of wise admonitions, or, in the case of the famous Diogenes anecdote, sound a distinctly critical note. (Alexander the Great, p. 74)
For my own analysis of Alexander's inconsistent portrayal in this text, see the note to Diogenes, lines 146-47.
14. ALEXANDER: TEXTUAL NOTES
32 thei. I follow B in emending from G's the.
40 counseile. So G. B reads I counseile, mistaking a virgule for the first person pronoun.
130 comethe thee of. B suggests comethe of thee or comethe to thee of.
178 me. So G. B omits.
235 shalt. I follow B in emending from G's shat.
245 nat. G: word added above the line.
250 ten thousande. B, G: x ml. See textual note to Socrates, line 104. Here, too, confirmation can be found in Scrope: xm.
256 sepulture. So G. B reads sepulcure.
309-10 twenty-foure thousand. B, G, Scrope: xxiiij ml. See textual note to Socrates, line 104.
533-34 thre hundred twenty-foure thousande. B, G: cccxxiiij ml. Scrope: cccxiijm. See textual note to Socrates, line 104.
595 twelve thousande. B, G: xij ml. Scrope: xm. See textual note to Socrates, line 104.
617 And. B inserts seid after this word, but there is no obvious need for this emendation.
624 annoyed. G: noyed written below the line, this being the end of the MS page.
650 had. I follow B in adding.
656 nat. So G. B inserts not, indicating that the word is missing from G, but it is not.